NVIDIA CUDA におけるカーネル融合：メモリアクセスと起動オーバーヘッドの最適化

There are many ways to optimize code for GPUs. In this post, you’ll learn how kernel fusion can improve memory bandwidth and reduce kernel launch overhead, along with multiple ways to apply it in NVIDIA CUDA code.

A common bottleneck when writing GPU code is that GPU compute is so fast that even high-bandwidth device memory doesn’t use the GPU kernel fully. Kernel fusion addresses this by combining multiple GPU operations into a single device kernel, so intermediate results don’t need to round-trip through global memory or require separate kernel launches.

This post is about fusing kernel bodies so intermediate results stay in registers, and memory transfers are reduced. CUDA Graphs provide another kind of fusion, but at a different layer. A graph captures a sequence of kernel launches, memory copies, and synchronizations into one reusable object that the host can dispatch with a single call. It doesn’t fuse kernel bodies.

Kernel fusion in practice

Kernels inside a graph run separately and pass intermediate results through global memory. Wrapping a naive baseline in a graph shaves microseconds off the host side, but the one GiB round-trip through the intermediate buffer remains unchanged. The two approaches are complementary and can be used together.

Let’s take a simple example: sum(abs(x)). We read an array, take the absolute value of each element, and return the sum.

A naive implementation uses two kernels: one to compute abs into a temporary intermediate buffer of the same size as the input, and another to reduce that buffer to a single number. This works, but it’s slow in a way that shows the broader problem.

template <typename Config>

__global__ void abs_kernel(Config config,

cuda::std::span<const float> in,

cuda::std::span<float> tmp)

{

}

template <typename Config>

__global__ void sum_kernel(Config config,

cuda::std::span<const float> tmp,

cuda::std::span<float> out)

{

}

int main()

{

auto config = cuda::distribute<BLOCK_THREADS>(in.size());

cuda::launch(stream, config, abs_kernel<decltype(config)>, in, tmp);

cuda::launch(stream, config, sum_kernel<decltype(config)>, tmp, out);

}

The C++ examples featured throughout this post use the latest NVIDIA CCCL runtime interfaces, including cuda::std::span, cuda::launch, and cuda::make_buffer—which debuted in CUDA 13.2. To explore these primitives further, refer to CCCL Runtime: A Modern C++ Runtime for CUDA.

If we look at an NVIDIA Nsight Systemsprofile of the full implementation, it looks like this:

Manual kernel fusion

The first thing we could do is rewrite these two kernels as a single sum_abs_kernel. This removes the intermediate buffer, which exists only to pass data between kernels. If both operations live in the same kernel, the buffer disappears, and the performance of the operation improves.

template <typename Config>

__global__ void sum_abs_kernel(Config config,

cuda::std::span<const float> x,

cuda::std::span<float> out)

{

using BlockReduce = cub::BlockReduce<float, BLOCK_THREADS>;

__shared__ typename BlockReduce::TempStorage temp_storage;

float thread_sum = 0.0f;

const auto tid = cuda::gpu_thread.rank(cuda::grid, config);

const auto stride = cuda::gpu_thread.count(cuda::grid, config);

for (size_t i = tid; i < x.size(); i += stride) {

thread_sum += fabsf(x[i]);

}

float block_sum = BlockReduce(temp_storage).Sum(thread_sum);

if (threadIdx.x == 0) {

cuda::atomic_ref<float, cuda::thread_scope_device> r(out[0]);

r.fetch_add(block_sum, cuda::memory_order_relaxed);

}

}

int main()

{

auto config = cuda::make_config(cuda::make_hierarchy(

cuda::grid_dims(1024),

cuda::block_dims<BLOCK_THREADS>()));

cuda::launch(stream, config, sum_abs_kernel<decltype(config)>, x, out);

}

• fabsf(x[i]) is computed inline, in a register, instead of being read from an intermediate buffer that another kernel wrote.

• A grid-stride loop lets each thread accumulate multiple elements into a single register (thread_sum), so partial sums never touch global memory.

• cub::BlockReduce handles the per-block reduction in shared memory, and cuda::atomic_ref lets one thread per block add its partial sum to the global result.

If we look at an Nsight Systems profile of the fused implementation, it collapses accordingly:

These numbers are for an NVIDIA GeForce RTX 4090. The memory bandwidth sits at ~850 GiB/s—roughly 90% of its theoretical 1,008 GB/s peak.

We’re bandwidth-bound as the GPU is doing as much memory work as physics enables. The fused version is faster because there’s less memory work to do.

A hand-written CUDA C++ kernel like this is sometimes the right solution, because you have full control and get as close as possible to peak performance. The drawback is the effort required to write the kernel, along with the high maintenance cost and limited portability across GPU architectures.

Device-side libraries such as CUB, libcu++, nvmath.device, and NVSHMEM can simplify manual fusion by providing reusable primitives for FFTs, matrix multiplications, reductions, scans, sorts, communication, and more.

Implicit kernel fusion

Writing your own kernel works. In this case, the operation is essentially “applying abs while reducing.” Instead of expressing that manually in CUDA C++, we can describe the computation in plain Python and let the compiler generate the kernel.

That is what torch.compile does. You give it a function, it traces what the tensors are doing, and Torch Inductor, PyTorch’s compiler, generates a kernel that runs on the GPU.

import torch

x = torch.randn(N, device="cuda")

def sum_abs(t):

return t.abs().sum()

compiled = torch.compile(sum_abs)

result = compiled(x)

By wrapping the sum_abs function with torch.compile we get a fused kernel. In the eager version (without torch.compile) we get what we expect: two kernels, one element-wise (abs) and one reduce (sum).

In the compiled version, we also get two kernels: triton_red_fused_abs_sum_0 and triton_red_fused_abs_sum_1.

Why? Because that is what the Inductor compiler generates.

To understand what Inductor did, take a look at the generated Triton kernels:

TORCH_LOGS="output_code" python implicit_fusion.py

The interesting part from the first kernel:

tmp0 = tl.load(in_ptr0 + ...)

tmp1 = tl_math.abs(tmp0)

tmp2 = _tmp3 + tmp1

The abs happens in a register, right after the load, inside the reduction kernel. There’s no separate abs kernel and no per-element intermediate buffer. A second kernel, running in one block, reads the 2,048 partial results and reduces them to one final scalar. You can learn more about this in this PyTorch blog post.

In practice, torch.compile fused the operation but split the reduction into two stages: one kernel reduces the input to a small set of per-block partial sums, and a second kernel adds those partial sums into a single number. In the manual version, we made a different choice: using atomics to accumulate into one global float. Both versions move one GiB through global memory instead of 3 GiB. The compiler picked a reasonable strategy but not the same strategy we would choose.

This is both good and bad. The compiler gives us a fused kernel for free, but we trade away some predictability. A different dtype, a different shape, or a small operation added in the middle can produce a completely different set of kernels. Sometimes you get one kernel. Sometimes you get four. Sometimes a fusion you were counting on quietly stops happening, without warning.

Explicit kernel fusion: Callbacks, iterators, and epilogs

What if we want the productivity of Python with the predictability of a hand-written kernel? That is what cuda.compute is for.

cuda.compute exposes device-wide algorithms such as reduce, scan, sort, and transform, along with a set of iterators that you can compose to control how those algorithms read their input. You do not write a kernel directly. Instead, you compose a computation and pass it to an algorithm, and the fusion happens because you explicitly asked for it.

The same sum(abs(x)) operation in cuda.compute looks like this:

import torch

import numpy as np

from cuda.compute import (

Determinism, OpKind, TransformIterator, reduce_into,

)

x = torch.randn(N, device="cuda")

out = torch.empty(1, dtype=torch.float32, device="cuda")

h_init = np.array([0.0], dtype=np.float32)

abs_it = TransformIterator(x, lambda a: abs(a))

reduce_into(

d_in=abs_it, d_out=out, num_items=N,

op=OpKind.PLUS, h_init=h_init,

determinism=Determinism.NOT_GUARANTEED,

)

TransformIterator doesn’t allocate anything or launch a kernel. It’s a lazy view that says, “when someone asks me for element i, read x[i] and apply abs to it.” reduce_into then performs a single-device-wide reduction, pulling elements through the iterator.

The abs runs inline, in registers, as each element is loaded from global memory. There’s no per-element intermediate buffer at any point. Also note that cuda.compute works with PyTorch Tensors. It supports inputs that implement DLPack or the CUDA Array API, such as CuPy arrays.

Once you separate “what the data is” from “how to walk it,” producing element i becomes an arbitrary inline computation: a load, a transform, a gather, or a struct unpack. The algorithm threads these operations into a single pass with no intermediate storage. This kind of solution is deterministic, portable, and composable, making it ideal for library authors and performance applications.

If we profile this with Nsight Systems, we get something similar to a single fused kernel produced by a few lines of Python:

The CUB library, on which cuda.compute is built, produces a single fused kernel optimized for the operation we described. It provides battle-tested implementations for many algorithms, along with the guarantees CCCL provides, such as optimizations for new hardware.

Unlike a compiler approach, it won’t silently change the fusion strategy because of a small code change, a different compiler version, or a compiler decision, because you explicitly decide what should be fused. This gives you more deterministic results while still enabling control over the final behavior, including details like floating-point determinism.

All three fused methods end up in the same place with 1 GiB of memory traffic and about a 3x speedup over the naive version. With manual fusion, you write the kernel, so the fusion is explicit and under your control. With compiler fusion, the compiler chooses for you.

With cuda.compute, you write the composition using Python ergonomics. Like manual fusion, this provides an explicit guarantee that the transform is fused into the reduction. The added benefit is that this composition is backed by CUB, so you get a well-tested, highly optimized implementation under the hood instead of a custom kernel you have to maintain and tune yourself.

cuda.compute gives Python developers access to the same iterator-based, deterministic fusion that Thrust and CUB have long provided in C++. It enables higher-level APIs and frameworks to perform as if they had custom kernels, without requiring developers to write those kernels themselves.

You can learn more about cuda.compute in docs and cuda-samples for Python.